Landscape Functions
Traditionally, the concept of landscape functions has been considered in the landscape planning system of Germany and German speaking countries. According to that concept, landscape has the following functions:
(1) Production (economic) functions (biomass production, water supply, suitability of nonrenewable resources);
(2) Regulatory (ecological) functions (regulation of mate rial and energy fluxes, hydrological and meteorological functions, regulation and regeneration of populations and bio(geo)coenoses, habitat (genetical) function); (3) Social functions (psychological (esthetic and ethical) functions, information functions, human ecological, and recrea tional functions).
This approach is very similar to the concept of eco system services and natural capital, which has recently gained extensive popularity. According to this concept, the typology of landscape functions includes four cate gories: (1) provisioning functions; (2) regulation functions;
(3) habitat functions; and (4) cultural and amenity func tions (see Table 1).
1. Provisioning functions comprise functions that sup ply 'physical services' in terms of resources or space. This category has been divided into two classes: production and carrier functions. Production functions reflect resources produced by natural ecosystems, for example, the harvesting of fish from the ocean, pharmaceutical products from wild plants and animals, or wood from natural forests. Carrier functions reflect the goods and services that are provided through human manipulation
Biophysical indicators (examples) (i.e., | ||||
Ecosystem |
ecosystem properties providing the |
Goods and services | ||
Entry |
functions |
Short description |
goods or service) |
(examples) |
1 |
Provisioning |
Resources from |
Biomass (production and stock) |
Freshwater |
Production |
unmanipulated |
Biochemical properties |
Food (e.g., fish, bush meat) | |
functions |
ecosystems |
Raw materials (wood, | ||
fodder) | ||||
Carrier |
Use of space to |
Depending on the specific land use |
Cultivation (e.g., | |
functions |
(enhance) supply |
type, different requirements are |
agriculture, plantations, | |
resources or other |
placed on environmental conditions | |||
goods and services |
(e.g., soil stability and fertility, air and |
Energy conversion (e.g., | ||
water quality, hydrology, topography, |
wind, solar) | |||
climate, geology) |
Mining (ore, fossil fuels) | |||
Transportation (esp. on | ||||
waterways) | ||||
2 |
Regulation |
Direct benefits from |
Role of ecosystems in biogeochemical |
Climate regulation |
functions |
ecosystem |
cycles (e.g., CO2/O2 balance, |
Maintenance of soil fertility | |
processes |
hydrological cycle) | |||
Role of vegetation and biota in removal |
Waste treatment (e.g., | |||
or breakdown of nutrients and toxic | ||||
compounds |
Maintenance of air quality | |||
Physical properties of land cover |
Water regulation (e.g., | |||
buffering runoff) | ||||
Erosion prevention | ||||
Storm protection and flood | ||||
prevention | ||||
Population control through tropic- |
Biological control (of pests | |||
dynamic relations |
and diseases) | |||
Pollination | ||||
3 |
Habitat |
Maintenance of |
Presence of rare/endemic species; |
Refugium for wildlife |
functions |
biodiversity and |
species diversity | ||
evolutionary |
Reproduction habitat for migratory |
Nursery function (for | ||
processes |
species |
commercial species) | ||
4 |
Cultural and |
Nonmaterial benefits |
Landscape (or ecosystem) properties |
Enjoyment of scenery (e.g., |
amenity |
with esthetic, recreational, historical, |
scenic roads) | ||
functions |
spiritual, inspirational, scientific, or |
Ecotourism and recreation | ||
educational value |
Heritage value/cultural | |||
landscapes | ||||
Spiritual or religious sites | ||||
Cultural expressions (use of | ||||
landscapes as motif in | ||||
books, film, painting, | ||||
folklore, advertising) | ||||
Research and education |
Adapted from De Groot RS and Hein L (2007) Concept and valuation of landscape functions at different scales. In: Mander U, Wiggering H, and Helming K (eds.) Multifunctional Land Use. Meeting Future Demands for Landscape Goods and Services, pp. 15 36. Berlin: Springer.
Adapted from De Groot RS and Hein L (2007) Concept and valuation of landscape functions at different scales. In: Mander U, Wiggering H, and Helming K (eds.) Multifunctional Land Use. Meeting Future Demands for Landscape Goods and Services, pp. 15 36. Berlin: Springer.
of natural productivity (e.g., fish from aquaculture or timber from plantations). In these cases, the function offered by nature is the provision of a suitable substrate or space for human activities, including agriculture, mining, transportation, etc.
2. Regulation functions result from the capacity of ecosystems and landscapes to influence ('regulate') cli mate, hydrological and biochemical cycles, Earth surface processes, and a variety of biological processes. These services often have an important spatial (connectivity)
aspect; for example, the flood control function of an upper watershed forest is only relevant in the flood zone downstream of the forest.
3. Habitat functions comprise the importance of ecosystems and landscapes in maintaining natural pro cesses and biodiversity, including the refugium and nursery functions. The refugium function reflects the value of landscape units in providing habitats to (threatened) fauna and flora, and the nursery function indicates that some landscape units provide a particularly suitable location for reproduction and thereby have a regulating impact on the maintenance of populations elsewhere.
4. Cultural and amenity functions relate to the ben efits people obtain from landscapes through recreation, cognitive development, relaxation, and spiritual reflec tion. This may involve actual visits to the area, indirectly enjoying the area (e.g., through nature movies), or gaining satisfaction from the knowledge that a landscape contains important biodiversity or cultural monuments. The latter may occur without having the intention of ever visiting the area. These services have also been referred to as 'information functions'.
The evaluation of landscapes for planning and manage ment purposes, as well as landscape synthesis and decision making, is based on landscape functions.
Post a comment